OpenClaw < 2026.2.25 - Password Brute-Force via Browser-Origin WebSocket Authentication Bypass

@@ -22,6 +22,7 @@ Docs: https://docs.openclaw.ai
 - Gateway/Message media roots: thread `agentId` through gateway `send` RPC and prefer explicit `agentId` over session/default resolution so non-default agent workspace media sends no longer fail with `LocalMediaAccessError`; added regression coverage for agent precedence and blank-agent fallback. (#23249) Thanks @Sid-Qin.
 - Cron/Model overrides: when isolated `payload.model` is no longer allowlisted, fall back to default model selection instead of failing the job, while still returning explicit errors for invalid model strings. (#26717) Thanks @Youyou972.
 - Security/Gateway auth: require pairing for operator device-identity sessions authenticated with shared token auth so unpaired devices cannot self-assign operator scopes. Thanks @tdjackey for reporting.
+- Security/Gateway WebSocket auth: enforce origin checks for direct browser WebSocket clients beyond Control UI/Webchat, apply password-auth failure throttling to browser-origin loopback attempts (including localhost), and block silent auto-pairing for non-Control-UI browser clients to prevent cross-origin brute-force and session takeover chains. This ships in the next npm release (`2026.2.25`). Thanks @luz-oasis for reporting.
 - Discord/Inbound text: preserve embed `title` + `description` fallback text in message and forwarded snapshot parsing so embed titles are not silently dropped from agent input. (#26946) Thanks @stakeswky.
 - Security/Nextcloud Talk: reject unsigned webhook traffic before full body reads, reducing unauthenticated request-body exposure, with auth-order regression coverage. (#26118) Thanks @bmendonca3.
 - Security/Nextcloud Talk: stop treating DM pairing-store entries as group allowlist senders, so group authorization remains bounded to configured group allowlists. (#26116) Thanks @bmendonca3.

@@ -2145,8 +2145,9 @@ See [Plugins](/tools/plugin).
 - `auth.allowTailscale`: when `true`, Tailscale Serve identity headers can satisfy Control UI/WebSocket auth (verified via `tailscale whois`); HTTP API endpoints still require token/password auth. This tokenless flow assumes the gateway host is trusted. Defaults to `true` when `tailscale.mode = "serve"`.
 - `auth.rateLimit`: optional failed-auth limiter. Applies per client IP and per auth scope (shared-secret and device-token are tracked independently). Blocked attempts return `429` + `Retry-After`.
   - `auth.rateLimit.exemptLoopback` defaults to `true`; set `false` when you intentionally want localhost traffic rate-limited too (for test setups or strict proxy deployments).
+- Browser-origin WS auth attempts are always throttled with loopback exemption disabled (defense-in-depth against browser-based localhost brute force).
 - `tailscale.mode`: `serve` (tailnet only, loopback bind) or `funnel` (public, requires auth).
-- `controlUi.allowedOrigins`: explicit browser-origin allowlist for Control UI/WebChat WebSocket connects. Required when Control UI is reachable on non-loopback binds.
+- `controlUi.allowedOrigins`: explicit browser-origin allowlist for Gateway WebSocket connects. Required when browser clients are expected from non-loopback origins.
 - `controlUi.dangerouslyAllowHostHeaderOriginFallback`: dangerous mode that enables Host-header origin fallback for deployments that intentionally rely on Host-header origin policy.
 - `remote.transport`: `ssh` (default) or `direct` (ws/wss). For `direct`, `remote.url` must be `ws://` or `wss://`.
 - `gateway.remote.token` is for remote CLI calls only; does not enable local gateway auth.

@@ -672,6 +672,17 @@ describe("gateway server auth/connect", () => {
       ws.close();
     });
 
+    test("rejects non-local browser origins for non-control-ui clients", async () => {
+      const ws = await openWs(port, { origin: "https://attacker.example" });
+      const res = await connectReq(ws, {
+        token: "secret",
+        client: TEST_OPERATOR_CLIENT,
+      });
+      expect(res.ok).toBe(false);
+      expect(res.error?.message ?? "").toContain("origin not allowed");
+      ws.close();
+    });
+
     test("returns control ui hint when token is missing", async () => {
       const ws = await openWs(port, { origin: originForPort(port) });
       const res = await connectReq(ws, {
@@ -701,6 +712,27 @@ describe("gateway server auth/connect", () => {
       );
       ws.close();
     });
+
+    test("rate-limits browser-origin auth failures on loopback even when loopback exemption is enabled", async () => {
+      testState.gatewayAuth = {
+        mode: "token",
+        token: "secret",
+        rateLimit: { maxAttempts: 1, windowMs: 60_000, lockoutMs: 60_000, exemptLoopback: true },
+      };
+      await withGatewayServer(async ({ port }) => {
+        const firstWs = await openWs(port, { origin: originForPort(port) });
+        const first = await connectReq(firstWs, { token: "wrong" });
+        expect(first.ok).toBe(false);
+        expect(first.error?.message ?? "").not.toContain("retry later");
+        firstWs.close();
+
+        const secondWs = await openWs(port, { origin: originForPort(port) });
+        const second = await connectReq(secondWs, { token: "wrong" });
+        expect(second.ok).toBe(false);
+        expect(second.error?.message ?? "").toContain("retry later");
+        secondWs.close();
+      });
+    });
   });
 
   describe("explicit none auth", () => {
@@ -1214,6 +1246,43 @@ describe("gateway server auth/connect", () => {
     restoreGatewayToken(prevToken);
   });
 
+  test("does not silently auto-pair non-control-ui browser clients on loopback", async () => {
+    const { listDevicePairing } = await import("../infra/device-pairing.js");
+    const { randomUUID } = await import("node:crypto");
+    const os = await import("node:os");
+    const path = await import("node:path");
+    const { server, ws, port, prevToken } = await startServerWithClient("secret");
+    ws.close();
+
+    const browserWs = await openWs(port, { origin: originForPort(port) });
+    const nonce = await readConnectChallengeNonce(browserWs);
+    const { identity, device } = await createSignedDevice({
+      token: "secret",
+      scopes: ["operator.admin"],
+      clientId: TEST_OPERATOR_CLIENT.id,
+      clientMode: TEST_OPERATOR_CLIENT.mode,
+      identityPath: path.join(os.tmpdir(), `openclaw-browser-device-${randomUUID()}.json`),
+      nonce,
+    });
+    const res = await connectReq(browserWs, {
+      token: "secret",
+      scopes: ["operator.admin"],
+      client: TEST_OPERATOR_CLIENT,
+      device,
+    });
+    expect(res.ok).toBe(false);
+    expect(res.error?.message ?? "").toContain("pairing required");
+
+    const pairing = await listDevicePairing();
+    const pending = pairing.pending.find((entry) => entry.deviceId === identity.deviceId);
+    expect(pending).toBeTruthy();
+    expect(pending?.silent).toBe(false);
+
+    browserWs.close();
+    await server.close();
+    restoreGatewayToken(prevToken);
+  });
+
   test("merges remote node/operator pairing requests for the same unpaired device", async () => {
     const { mkdtemp } = await import("node:fs/promises");
     const { tmpdir } = await import("node:os");

@@ -316,6 +316,11 @@ export async function startGatewayServer(
   const authRateLimiter: AuthRateLimiter | undefined = rateLimitConfig
     ? createAuthRateLimiter(rateLimitConfig)
     : undefined;
+  // Always keep a browser-origin fallback limiter for WS auth attempts.
+  const browserAuthRateLimiter: AuthRateLimiter = createAuthRateLimiter({
+    ...rateLimitConfig,
+    exemptLoopback: false,
+  });
 
   let controlUiRootState: ControlUiRootState | undefined;
   if (controlUiRootOverride) {
@@ -574,6 +579,7 @@ export async function startGatewayServer(
     canvasHostServerPort,
     resolvedAuth,
     rateLimiter: authRateLimiter,
+    browserRateLimiter: browserAuthRateLimiter,
     gatewayMethods,
     events: GATEWAY_EVENTS,
     logGateway: log,
@@ -777,6 +783,7 @@ export async function startGatewayServer(
       }
       skillsChangeUnsub();
       authRateLimiter?.dispose();
+      browserAuthRateLimiter.dispose();
       channelHealthMonitor?.stop();
       await close(opts);
     },

@@ -99,6 +99,8 @@ export function attachGatewayWsMessageHandler(params: {
   resolvedAuth: ResolvedGatewayAuth;
   /** Optional rate limiter for auth brute-force protection. */
   rateLimiter?: AuthRateLimiter;
+  /** Browser-origin fallback limiter (loopback is never exempt). */
+  browserRateLimiter?: AuthRateLimiter;
   gatewayMethods: string[];
   events: string[];
   extraHandlers: GatewayRequestHandlers;
@@ -130,6 +132,7 @@ export function attachGatewayWsMessageHandler(params: {
     connectNonce,
     resolvedAuth,
     rateLimiter,
+    browserRateLimiter,
     gatewayMethods,
     events,
     extraHandlers,
@@ -192,6 +195,12 @@ export function attachGatewayWsMessageHandler(params: {
 
   const isWebchatConnect = (p: ConnectParams | null | undefined) => isWebchatClient(p?.client);
   const unauthorizedFloodGuard = new UnauthorizedFloodGuard();
+  const hasBrowserOriginHeader = Boolean(requestOrigin && requestOrigin.trim() !== "");
+  const enforceBrowserOriginForAnyClient = hasBrowserOriginHeader && !hasProxyHeaders;
+  const browserRateLimitClientIp =
+    hasBrowserOriginHeader && isLoopbackAddress(clientIp) ? "198.18.0.1" : clientIp;
+  const authRateLimiter =
+    hasBrowserOriginHeader && browserRateLimiter ? browserRateLimiter : rateLimiter;
 
   socket.on("message", async (data) => {
     if (isClosed()) {
@@ -329,7 +338,7 @@ export function attachGatewayWsMessageHandler(params: {
 
         const isControlUi = connectParams.client.id === GATEWAY_CLIENT_IDS.CONTROL_UI;
         const isWebchat = isWebchatConnect(connectParams);
-        if (isControlUi || isWebchat) {
+        if (enforceBrowserOriginForAnyClient || isControlUi || isWebchat) {
           const originCheck = checkBrowserOrigin({
             requestHost,
             origin: requestOrigin,
@@ -377,8 +386,8 @@ export function attachGatewayWsMessageHandler(params: {
           req: upgradeReq,
           trustedProxies,
           allowRealIpFallback,
-          rateLimiter,
-          clientIp,
+          rateLimiter: authRateLimiter,
+          clientIp: browserRateLimitClientIp,
         });
         const rejectUnauthorized = (failedAuth: GatewayAuthResult) => {
           markHandshakeFailure("unauthorized", {
@@ -556,8 +565,8 @@ export function attachGatewayWsMessageHandler(params: {
           deviceId: device?.id,
           role,
           scopes,
-          rateLimiter,
-          clientIp,
+          rateLimiter: authRateLimiter,
+          clientIp: browserRateLimitClientIp,
           verifyDeviceToken,
         }));
         if (!authOk) {
@@ -613,11 +622,15 @@ export function attachGatewayWsMessageHandler(params: {
           const requirePairing = async (
             reason: "not-paired" | "role-upgrade" | "scope-upgrade",
           ) => {
+            const allowSilentLocalPairing =
+              isLocalClient &&
+              (!hasBrowserOriginHeader || isControlUi || isWebchat) &&
+              (reason === "not-paired" || reason === "scope-upgrade");
             const pairing = await requestDevicePairing({
               deviceId: device.id,
               publicKey: devicePublicKey,
               ...clientAccessMetadata,
-              silent: isLocalClient && (reason === "not-paired" || reason === "scope-upgrade"),
+              silent: allowSilentLocalPairing,
             });
             const context = buildRequestContext();
             if (pairing.request.silent === true) {

@@ -65,6 +65,8 @@ export function attachGatewayWsConnectionHandler(params: {
   resolvedAuth: ResolvedGatewayAuth;
   /** Optional rate limiter for auth brute-force protection. */
   rateLimiter?: AuthRateLimiter;
+  /** Browser-origin fallback limiter (loopback is never exempt). */
+  browserRateLimiter?: AuthRateLimiter;
   gatewayMethods: string[];
   events: string[];
   logGateway: SubsystemLogger;
@@ -90,6 +92,7 @@ export function attachGatewayWsConnectionHandler(params: {
     canvasHostServerPort,
     resolvedAuth,
     rateLimiter,
+    browserRateLimiter,
     gatewayMethods,
     events,
     logGateway,
@@ -278,6 +281,7 @@ export function attachGatewayWsConnectionHandler(params: {
       connectNonce,
       resolvedAuth,
       rateLimiter,
+      browserRateLimiter,
       gatewayMethods,
       events,
       extraHandlers,

@@ -16,6 +16,8 @@ export function attachGatewayWsHandlers(params: {
   resolvedAuth: ResolvedGatewayAuth;
   /** Optional rate limiter for auth brute-force protection. */
   rateLimiter?: AuthRateLimiter;
+  /** Browser-origin fallback limiter (loopback is never exempt). */
+  browserRateLimiter?: AuthRateLimiter;
   gatewayMethods: string[];
   events: string[];
   logGateway: ReturnType<typeof createSubsystemLogger>;
@@ -41,6 +43,7 @@ export function attachGatewayWsHandlers(params: {
     canvasHostServerPort: params.canvasHostServerPort,
     resolvedAuth: params.resolvedAuth,
     rateLimiter: params.rateLimiter,
+    browserRateLimiter: params.browserRateLimiter,
     gatewayMethods: params.gatewayMethods,
     events: params.events,
     logGateway: params.logGateway,